From: Risk factors associated with quadbike crashes: a systematic review
Risk category | Risk factor | Study outcome | Association | Confounders accounted for | Study |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Personal risk factors (all ages) For Crash, Injury or Death due to QB use | |||||
Inherent attribute | |||||
Gender | Being Male | Loss of control event | Adjusted incident rate ratio = 4.874 (2.655–8.947) | Age, unrealistic optimism, impulsive sensation seeking | Clay et al., 2014, New Zealand |
Being male | Crash | aOR = 2.23 (1.32–3.77) | Gender, riding frequency, riding with passengers, riding on road | Jennissen et al., 2017, USA | |
Being male | Loss of control events | Adjusted IRR 4.00 (2.15, 7.44) | Job demand, workplace satisfaction, colleague support, QB experience, farm type | Clay et al., 2014, New Zealand | |
Being male | Death | Relative risk = 1.050 (1.011–1.090) | Usage rate, rural, population under 25, college graduate, non-Hispanic white, farm workers | Rodgers, USA, 2008 | |
Age | Age (Every 1-year increase) | Loss of control event | Adjusted incident rate ratio = 0.98 (0.969–0.991) | Gender, unrealistic optimism, impulsive sensation seeking | Clay et al., 2014, New Zealand |
Age (10-year increase) | Hospitalization | aOR = 1.35 (1.22–1.48) | Gender, substance abuse | Bohl, 2010, USA | |
Age < 12 years vs 12–17 years | Rollover | RR = 1.96 (1.68–2.27) |  | Li et al., 2020, USA | |
Age < 16 years | Head injury | OR = 1.45 (1.19–1.77) |  | McLean et al., 2014, Canada | |
Age > 16 years | Nighttime crash | 30% cases among adults vs 14% among youth. Chi-square test (p < 0.0001) |  | Jennissen et al., 2020, USA | |
Age 16–20 years vs 31–65 years | Crash | aOR = 1.95 (1.09–3.51) | Gender, riding frequency, riding with passengers, riding on road | Jennissen et al., 2017, USA | |
Age 21–30 years vs 31–65 years | Crash | aOR = 2.14 (1.12–4.11) | Gender, riding frequency, riding with passengers, riding on road | Jennissen et al., 2017, USa | |
Age > 60 years | Death | OR = 6.96 (3.75–12.92) | Gender, systolic blood pressure, Glasgow Coma scale, respiratory rate | Deladisma et al., 2008, USA | |
Age 12–17-year-old vs age < 12 years old | Injury | RR = 2.16 (1.67–2.80) |  | Li et al., 2020, USA | |
Age 12–17-year-old vs age < 12 years old | Laceration and bleeding | RR = 1.43 (1.23–1.66) |  | Li et al., 2020, USA | |
Age 12–17-year-old vs age < 12 years old | Ejection from QB vs rollover | RR = 1.29 (1.15–1.45) |  | Li et al., 2020, USA | |
Physical attribute | Height taller than 1.81 m | Loss of control events | OR = 1.08 (1.02–1.14; p = 0.008) | Height, weight, distance traveled, mean velocity, vibration | Milosavljevic et al., 2011, New Zealand |
Wingspan (with handlebar angle more than 60°) | Rollover | J hook test |  | Mattei et al., 2011, USA | |
Socioeconomic attribute | Non-Hispanic white | Death | RR = 1.013 (1.004–1.023) | Usage rate, rural, population under 25, college graduate, male, farm workers | Rodgers, 2008, USA |
College graduate | Death | RR = 0.969 (0.942–0.996) | Usage rate, rural, population under 25, race, male, farm workers | Rodgers, 2008, USA | |
Modifiable attribute | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |
Helmet use | Unhelmeted riders | Death | aOR = 6.577 (1.428–30.300) | Age, gender, blood alcohol level | Pelletier et al., 2012, Canada |
Unhelmeted riders | Death | OR = 2.58 (1.79–3.71), p < 0.001 | Age, gender, clustering of facility, blood transfusion, hypotensive patients | Bowman et al., 2009, USA | |
Unhelmeted riders | Traumatic brain injury | OR = 2.99 (2.30–3.89), p < 0.001 | Age, gender, geographic region, hypotension, blood transfusion at hospital | Bowman et al., 2009, USA | |
Unhelmeted riders | Traumatic brain injury | OR = 1.85 (1.45–2.37) |  | Bethea et al., 2014, USA | |
Helmet use | Traumatic brain injury | OR = 0.36 (0.14–0.94) | Age, gender, injury severity score, helmet use, intoxication status | Benham, 2017, USA | |
Unhelmeted riders | Major head injury AIS >  = 3 | aOR = 2.297 (1.033–5.109) | Age, gender, blood alcohol level | Pelletier et al., 2012, Canada | |
Unhelmeted riders | Neck injury | OR = 3.53 (1.26–9.91), p = 0.017 | Age, gender, geographic region, hypotension, blood transfusion at hospital | Bowman et al., 2009, USA | |
Helmet use | Simulated neck injury | Injury risk/benefit percentage = 9% (6%,-21%); p < 0.001 |  | Zellner et al., 2014, USA | |
Substance abuse | Alcohol consumption | Death | RR = 2.33 (1.52–0.56) |  | Krauss et al., 2010, Canada |
Alcohol use | Nighttime crashes | Chi-square p < 0.001 (44% alcohol consumption vs 13%) |  | Jennissen et al., 2020, USA | |
Substance abuse | Hospitalization | aOR = 5.60 (3.46–9.09) | Gender, age | Bohl, 2010, USA | |
Substance use [alcohol, narcotics, cannabis, benzodiazepines, amphetamine, cocaine, barbiturates, ecstasy] | Musculoskeletal injury | OR = 1.31 (1.03–1.67) |  | Bethea et al., 2014, USA | |
Multiple riders | Presence of passenger during rollover | Backward rollover | OR = 2.5 (1.1–5.7) |  | Jennissen et al., 2016, USA |
Presence of passenger during crash | Crash | OR = 5.3 (2.5–11.7) |  | Jennissen et al., 2016, USA | |
Being a passenger during crash or rollover | Crash or rollover | OR = 3.6 (2.0–6.5) |  | Jennissen et al., 2016, USA | |
Presence of passenger | Crash—forward flip, lateral rollover |  |  | Thorbole et al., 2012, USA | |
Paved road | Riding on paved road | Crash | aOR = 4.83 (1.23–18.93) | Gender, riding frequency, riding with passengers, riding on road | Jennissen et al., 2017, USA |
Personal Risk factors (children < 16) For Crash, Injury or Death due to QB Use | |||||
Inherent attribute | |||||
Gender | Being a male | Crash | aOR = 1.61 (1.39–1.91) | Gender, age, riding frequency, rurality, riding with passenger | Jennissen et al., 2014, USA |
Being a male | Injury, general | OR = 1.62; 1.05–2.5 |  | Burgus et al., 2009, USA | |
Being a male (< 6 years) | Death | OR = 0.37 (0.21–0.65) for < 6 years | Helmet use, location, collision mechanism [QB-QB, QB-Veh, QB-other, non-collision], being a passenger | Denning et al., 2014, USA | |
Being a male (6–11 years) | Death | OR = 0.54 (0.35–0.83) |  | Denning et al., 2014, USA | |
Being a male (12–15 year) | Death | OR = 0.55 (0.37–0.81) |  | Denning et al., 2014, USA | |
Modifiable risk factors | |||||
Riding initiation | Age of initiation < 12 years | Injury, general | OR = 4.08; 2.43–6.86 |  | Burgus et al., 2009, USA |
Multiple rider | Being a passenger (age 6–11 years) | Death | OR = 3.56 (2.36–5.39) | Gender, helmet use, location, collision mechanism | Denning et al., 2014, USA |
Being a passenger and age < 6 years | Death | OR = 21.1 (11.9–37.6) | Gender, helmet use, location, collision mechanism | Denning et al., 2014, USA | |
Being a passenger | Head neck injury | OR = 8.3 (1.6–43.3) | Period [law enactment], helmet use, age, mechanism of injury, gender, race | McBride et al., 2011, USA | |
Being a passenger | Musculoskeletal injury | OR = 0.69 (0.56–0.85) | Unadjusted | Garay et al., 2017, USA | |
Multiple riders (driver) | Injury, general | OR = 2.74 (1.13–6.65) | Age, race, QB ownership, training, frequency of operation, helmet use | Jones et al., 2005, USA | |
Riding habit | Riding on paved road | Crash | aOR = 1.77 (1.14–2.74) | Gender, age, riding frequency, rurality, riding with passenger | Jennissen et al., 2014, USA |
Riding after dark | Injury, general | Chi-square (p < 0.001) |  | Campbell et al., 2010, USA | |
Frequency of QB use > 3 per week | Injury, general | aOR = 3.46 (1.48–8.08) | Age, race, QB ownership, training, frequency of operation, helmet use | Jones et al., 2005, USA | |
Helmet use | Unhelmeted riders | Head injury | OR = 1.6 (1.43–1.81) |  | McLean et al., 2014, Canada |
Unhelmeted riders (6–11 years) | Death | OR = 1.45 (1.04–2.02) | Gender, location, collision mechanism, passenger status | Denning et al., 2014, USA | |
Unhelmeted riders | Traumatic brain injury | OR = 2.32 (1.23–4.37) | Age, gender, clustering of facility, blood transfusion, hypotensive patients. helmeted riders as reference | Bowman et al., 2009, USA | |
Parental negligence | Children riding without supervision | Injury | Chi-square (p < 0.001) |  | Campbell et al., 2010, USA |
Parents allowing children to ride adult QB | Injury | Chi-square (p < 0.001) |  | Campbell et al., 2010, USA |