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Table 4 Intrinsic risk factors related to quadbike riding

From: Risk factors associated with quadbike crashes: a systematic review

Risk category

Risk factor

Study outcome

Association

Confounders accounted for

Study

Personal risk factors (all ages) For Crash, Injury or Death due to QB use

Inherent attribute

Gender

Being Male

Loss of control event

Adjusted incident rate ratio = 4.874 (2.655–8.947)

Age, unrealistic optimism, impulsive sensation seeking

Clay et al., 2014, New Zealand

Being male

Crash

aOR = 2.23 (1.32–3.77)

Gender, riding frequency, riding with passengers, riding on road

Jennissen et al., 2017, USA

Being male

Loss of control events

Adjusted IRR 4.00 (2.15, 7.44)

Job demand, workplace satisfaction, colleague support, QB experience, farm type

Clay et al., 2014, New Zealand

Being male

Death

Relative risk = 1.050 (1.011–1.090)

Usage rate, rural, population under 25, college graduate, non-Hispanic white, farm workers

Rodgers, USA, 2008

Age

Age (Every 1-year increase)

Loss of control event

Adjusted incident rate ratio = 0.98 (0.969–0.991)

Gender, unrealistic optimism, impulsive sensation seeking

Clay et al., 2014, New Zealand

Age (10-year increase)

Hospitalization

aOR = 1.35 (1.22–1.48)

Gender, substance abuse

Bohl, 2010, USA

Age < 12 years vs 12–17 years

Rollover

RR = 1.96 (1.68–2.27)

 

Li et al., 2020, USA

Age < 16 years

Head injury

OR = 1.45 (1.19–1.77)

 

McLean et al., 2014, Canada

Age > 16 years

Nighttime crash

30% cases among adults vs 14% among youth. Chi-square test (p < 0.0001)

 

Jennissen et al., 2020, USA

Age 16–20 years vs 31–65 years

Crash

aOR = 1.95 (1.09–3.51)

Gender, riding frequency, riding with passengers, riding on road

Jennissen et al., 2017, USA

Age 21–30 years vs 31–65 years

Crash

aOR = 2.14 (1.12–4.11)

Gender, riding frequency, riding with passengers, riding on road

Jennissen et al., 2017, USa

Age > 60 years

Death

OR = 6.96 (3.75–12.92)

Gender, systolic blood pressure, Glasgow Coma scale, respiratory rate

Deladisma et al., 2008, USA

Age 12–17-year-old vs age < 12 years old

Injury

RR = 2.16 (1.67–2.80)

 

Li et al., 2020, USA

Age 12–17-year-old vs age < 12 years old

Laceration and bleeding

RR = 1.43 (1.23–1.66)

 

Li et al., 2020, USA

Age 12–17-year-old vs age < 12 years old

Ejection from QB vs rollover

RR = 1.29 (1.15–1.45)

 

Li et al., 2020, USA

Physical attribute

Height taller than 1.81 m

Loss of control events

OR = 1.08 (1.02–1.14; p = 0.008)

Height, weight, distance traveled, mean velocity, vibration

Milosavljevic et al., 2011, New Zealand

Wingspan (with handlebar angle more than 60°)

Rollover

J hook test

 

Mattei et al., 2011, USA 

Socioeconomic attribute

Non-Hispanic white

Death

RR = 1.013 (1.004–1.023)

Usage rate, rural, population under 25, college graduate, male, farm workers

Rodgers, 2008, USA

College graduate

Death

RR = 0.969 (0.942–0.996)

Usage rate, rural, population under 25, race, male, farm workers

Rodgers, 2008, USA

Modifiable attribute

     

Helmet use

Unhelmeted riders

Death

aOR = 6.577 (1.428–30.300)

Age, gender, blood alcohol level

Pelletier et al., 2012, Canada

Unhelmeted riders

Death

OR = 2.58 (1.79–3.71), p < 0.001

Age, gender, clustering of facility, blood transfusion, hypotensive patients

Bowman et al., 2009, USA

Unhelmeted riders

Traumatic brain injury

OR = 2.99 (2.30–3.89), p < 0.001

Age, gender, geographic region, hypotension, blood transfusion at hospital

Bowman et al., 2009, USA

Unhelmeted riders

Traumatic brain injury

OR = 1.85 (1.45–2.37)

 

Bethea et al., 2014, USA

Helmet use

Traumatic brain injury

OR = 0.36 (0.14–0.94)

Age, gender, injury severity score, helmet use, intoxication status

Benham, 2017, USA

Unhelmeted riders

Major head injury AIS >  = 3

aOR = 2.297 (1.033–5.109)

Age, gender, blood alcohol level

Pelletier et al., 2012, Canada

Unhelmeted riders

Neck injury

OR = 3.53 (1.26–9.91), p = 0.017

Age, gender, geographic region, hypotension, blood transfusion at hospital

Bowman et al., 2009, USA

Helmet use

Simulated neck injury

Injury risk/benefit percentage = 9% (6%,-21%); p < 0.001

 

Zellner et al., 2014, USA

Substance abuse

Alcohol consumption

Death

RR = 2.33 (1.52–0.56)

 

Krauss et al., 2010, Canada

Alcohol use

Nighttime crashes

Chi-square p < 0.001 (44% alcohol consumption vs 13%)

 

Jennissen et al., 2020, USA

Substance abuse

Hospitalization

aOR = 5.60 (3.46–9.09)

Gender, age

Bohl, 2010, USA

Substance use [alcohol, narcotics, cannabis, benzodiazepines, amphetamine, cocaine, barbiturates, ecstasy]

Musculoskeletal injury

OR = 1.31 (1.03–1.67)

 

Bethea et al., 2014, USA

Multiple riders

Presence of passenger during rollover

Backward rollover

OR = 2.5 (1.1–5.7)

 

Jennissen et al., 2016, USA

Presence of passenger during crash

Crash

OR = 5.3 (2.5–11.7)

 

Jennissen et al., 2016, USA

Being a passenger during crash or rollover

Crash or rollover

OR = 3.6 (2.0–6.5)

 

Jennissen et al., 2016, USA

Presence of passenger

Crash—forward flip, lateral rollover

  

Thorbole et al., 2012, USA

Paved road

Riding on paved road

Crash

aOR = 4.83 (1.23–18.93)

Gender, riding frequency, riding with passengers, riding on road

Jennissen et al., 2017, USA

Personal Risk factors (children < 16) For Crash, Injury or Death due to QB Use

Inherent attribute

Gender

Being a male

Crash

aOR = 1.61 (1.39–1.91)

Gender, age, riding frequency, rurality, riding with passenger

Jennissen et al., 2014, USA

Being a male

Injury, general

OR = 1.62; 1.05–2.5

 

Burgus et al., 2009, USA

Being a male (< 6 years)

Death

OR = 0.37 (0.21–0.65) for < 6 years

Helmet use, location, collision mechanism [QB-QB, QB-Veh, QB-other, non-collision], being a passenger

Denning et al., 2014, USA

Being a male (6–11 years)

Death

OR = 0.54 (0.35–0.83)

 

Denning et al., 2014, USA

Being a male (12–15 year)

Death

OR = 0.55 (0.37–0.81)

 

Denning et al., 2014, USA

Modifiable risk factors

Riding initiation

Age of initiation < 12 years

Injury, general

OR = 4.08; 2.43–6.86

 

Burgus et al., 2009, USA

Multiple rider

Being a passenger (age 6–11 years)

Death

OR = 3.56 (2.36–5.39)

Gender, helmet use, location, collision mechanism

Denning et al., 2014, USA

Being a passenger and age < 6 years

Death

OR = 21.1 (11.9–37.6)

Gender, helmet use, location, collision mechanism

Denning et al., 2014, USA

Being a passenger

Head neck injury

OR = 8.3 (1.6–43.3)

Period [law enactment], helmet use, age, mechanism of injury, gender, race

McBride et al., 2011, USA

Being a passenger

Musculoskeletal injury

OR = 0.69 (0.56–0.85)

Unadjusted

Garay et al., 2017, USA

Multiple riders (driver)

Injury, general

OR = 2.74 (1.13–6.65)

Age, race, QB ownership, training, frequency of operation, helmet use

Jones et al., 2005, USA

Riding habit

Riding on paved road

Crash

aOR = 1.77 (1.14–2.74)

Gender, age, riding frequency, rurality, riding with passenger

Jennissen et al., 2014, USA

Riding after dark

Injury, general

Chi-square (p < 0.001)

 

Campbell et al., 2010, USA

Frequency of QB use > 3 per week

Injury, general

aOR = 3.46 (1.48–8.08)

Age, race, QB ownership, training, frequency of operation, helmet use

Jones et al., 2005, USA

Helmet use

Unhelmeted riders

Head injury

OR = 1.6 (1.43–1.81)

 

McLean et al., 2014, Canada

Unhelmeted riders (6–11 years)

Death

OR = 1.45 (1.04–2.02)

Gender, location, collision mechanism, passenger status

Denning et al., 2014, USA

Unhelmeted riders

Traumatic brain injury

OR = 2.32 (1.23–4.37)

Age, gender, clustering of facility, blood transfusion, hypotensive patients. helmeted riders as reference

Bowman et al., 2009, USA

Parental negligence

Children riding without supervision

Injury

Chi-square (p < 0.001)

 

Campbell et al., 2010, USA

Parents allowing children to ride adult QB

Injury

Chi-square (p < 0.001)

 

Campbell et al., 2010, USA